Akkad H., Ciftci F., Özerol E., Kizilkurtlu A. A.
BIOSENSORS, cilt.16, sa.7, ss.392-429, 2026 (Scopus)
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Yayın Türü:
Makale / Derleme
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Cilt numarası:
16
Sayı:
7
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Basım Tarihi:
2026
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Doi Numarası:
10.3390/bios16070392
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Dergi Adı:
BIOSENSORS
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Derginin Tarandığı İndeksler:
Applied Science & Technology Source, Natural Science Collection (ProQuest), Biological Science Database (ProQuest), Health Research Premium Collection (ProQuest), Scopus, Compendex, EMBASE, INSPEC, MEDLINE, Directory of Open Access Journals
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Sayfa Sayıları:
ss.392-429
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Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Adresli:
Evet
Özet
Wearable biosensors have swiftly progressed from stiff laboratory prototypes to flexible, skin-like systems capable of ongoing physiological monitoring. Yet, the active and mechanically intense nature of athletic performance reveals the limits of static device designs made solely through traditional 3D printing. This review offers a thorough analysis of the shift from custom 3D-printed platforms to adaptive 4D-printed wearable biosensors that include time-sensitive, stimuli-responsive materials. We carefully investigate how nanomaterial-engineered transducers, including carbon nanomaterials, MXenes, and metallic nanostructures, improve electrochemical sensitivity, signal stability, and mechanical durability in sweat-based and electrophysiological sensing. Additionally, we examine the integration of thermoresponsive polymers, moisture-activated hydrogels, shape-memory materials, and self-healing networks that support autonomous control of skin–sensor contact, microfluidic sweat management, and structural stability under high mechanical strain. Case studies focused on sports monitoring demonstrate how these innovations enable multimodal measurement of mechanical, chemical, and molecular biomarkers in real time. Lastly, we address manufacturing scalability, regulatory issues, and translational challenges necessary to move from proof-of-concept to clinical deployment. By combining nanomaterial-driven electrochemical precision with 4D-printed mechanical adaptability, this review maps a path toward adaptive, self-regulating wearable platforms that sustain analytical accuracy even under extreme physiological demands.